Transcription factor support for the dual embryological origin of the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles.

The embryological origin of the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles has been debated for over a century. To shed light on this issue, the present anatomical study was performed. Five fresh frozen human cadavers, three males and two females, were used for this study. Samples from each specimen's trapezius and sternocleidomastoid were fixed in 10% formalin and placed in paraffin blocks. As Paired like homeodomain 2 (Pitx2) and T-box factor 1(Tbx1) have been implicated in the region and muscle type regulation, we performed Tbx1 and Pitx2 Immunohistochemistry (IHC) on these muscle tissue samples to identify the origin of the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles. We have used the latest version of QuPath, v0.4.3, software to quantify the Tbx and Pitx2 staining. For the sternocleidomastoid muscle, for evaluated samples, the average amount of positively stained Tbx1 and Pitx2 was 25% (range 16%-30%) and 18% (range 12%-23%), respectively. For the trapezius muscles, for evaluated samples, the average amount of positively stained Tbx1 and Pitx2 parts of the samples was 17% (range 15%-20%) and 15% (14%-17%), respectively. Our anatomical findings suggest dual origins of both the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles. Additionally, as neither Pitx2 nor Tbx1 made up all the staining observed for each muscle, other contributions to these structures are likely. Future studies with larger samples are now necessary to confirm these findings.

Light Stress in Yeasts: Signaling and Responses in Creatures of the Night.

Living organisms on the surface biosphere are periodically yet consistently exposed to light. The adaptive or protective evolution caused by this source of energy has led to the biological systems present in a large variety of organisms, including fungi. Among fungi, yeasts have developed essential protective responses against the deleterious effects of light. Stress generated by light exposure is propagated through the synthesis of hydrogen peroxide and mediated by regulatory factors that are also involved in the response to other stressors. These have included Msn2/4, Crz1, Yap1, and Mga2, thus suggesting that light stress is a common factor in the yeast environmental response.

A study on etiology of incontinence in double knockout mouse model.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE: Stress urinary incontinence is of concern in both pediatric and adult population. Double mutant GLI family zinc finger Gli2+/-; Gli3Δ699/+ murine model of stress incontinence has been recently developed as a reliable model which does not require surgical manipulation to create incontinence and is shown to survive to adulthood. The aim of this study was to establish the etiology of incontinence in the double mutant Gli2+/-; Gli3Δ699/+ mice. STUDY DESIGN: We used 13 cluster of differentiation 1 (CD-1) mice (7-9 weeks) for demonstration of histology of the bladder and urethra. There were 3 Wild Gli2+/- females, 2 Wild Gli2+/- males, 4 Gli2+/-;Gli3Δ699/+ females and 4 Gli2+/-;Gli3Δ699/+ males. The Wild Gli2+/- mice served as the control group and Gli2+/-;Gli3Δ699/+ mice served as the test group. Additionally, eight 16.5 days mice (2 each of Wild Gli2+/- females, Wild Gli2+/- males, double knockout (DKO) Gli2+/-;Gli3Δ699/+ females and Gli2+/-;Gli3Δ699/+ males) were used to assess the histology of the spinal cord. The gross appearance of bladder and urethra was studied using ink injection assays. Immunohistochemistry was done for smooth muscle actin and cytokeratin. RESULTS: Gross and histologic appearance confirmed the previously reported widening of bladder outlet and hypoplasia of smooth muscles in female urethra and also established them in the male urethra of Gli2+/-;Gli3Δ699/+ mice compared to Gli2+/- mice. The double knockout mice were smaller than the Gli2 mice (5.2 vs 6.1 cm, p = 0.002). Immunohistochemistry demonstrated epithelial hyperplasia and smooth muscle hypoplasia. Additionally, there was prostatic hypoplasia in the Gli2+/-;Gli3Δ699/+ male mice. The spinal cord length for body size appeared comparable between the Gli2+/- and Gli2+/-;Gli3Δ699/+ mice but histological evaluation revealed abnormal development of the caudal end of the vertebral body with premature termination of the spinal cord (Figure). DISCUSSION: The histological changes in the bladder neck and urethra were consistent to those previously reported. While previous report described the findings in female mice only, we confirmed that these findings are also present in males as well as prostatic hypoplasia, a possible additional factor leading to stress incontinence. The most important finding in the present study however, was the detection of premature termination of spinal cord in the DKO Gli2+/-; Gli3Δ699/+ mice which has not been reported previously and is likely a major contributor to incontinence in this model. CONCLUSION: The incontinence in male as well as female Gli2+/-; Gli3Δ699/+ mice is due to both myogenic and neurogenic involvement. These double knockout mice are a valuable model of stress incontinence related to neurogenic bladder due to low outlet resistance.

Hypoxia-induced factor and its role in liver fibrosis.

Liver fibrosis develops as a result of severe liver damage and is considered a major clinical concern throughout the world. Many factors are crucial for liver fibrosis progression. While advancements have been made to understand this disease, no effective pharmacological drug and treatment strategies have been established that can effectively prevent liver fibrosis or even could halt the fibrotic process. Most of those advances in curing liver fibrosis have been aimed towards mitigating the causes of fibrosis, including the development of potent antivirals to inhibit the hepatitis virus. It is not practicable for many individuals; however, a liver transplant becomes the only suitable alternative. A liver transplant is an expensive procedure. Thus, there is a significant need to identify potential targets of liver fibrosis and the development of such agents that can effectively treat or reverse liver fibrosis by targeting them. Researchers have identified hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs) in the last 16 years as important transcription factors driving several facets of liver fibrosis, making them possible therapeutic targets. The latest knowledge on HIFs and their possible role in liver fibrosis, along with the cell-specific activities of such transcription factors that how they play role in liver fibrosis progression, is discussed in this review.

Cloning and characterization of the MYB transcription factor gene GhTT2 in Gossypium hirsutum.

As one of the important secondary metabolites, proanthocyanidins (PAs) are not only a defense mechanism for plants to cope with biotic and abiotic stresses, but also a key factor affecting the development and quality of plants. Although the biosynthetic and metabolic pathways of proanthocyanidins have been basically clarified in the model plants, the regulatory mechanism in cotton has not been fully elucidated. In this work, a transcription factor gene GhTT2 (transparent testa 2) was cloned from Gossypium hirsutum. Its gene structure, expression pattern, subcellular localization, and function were further analyzed. The results show that the GhTT2 has a typical MYB domain and is predominantly expressed in fibers. Its transcription level was negatively correlated with anthocyanin content. The GhTT2-GFP fusion protein is located in the nucleus. Moreover, yeast transformation results show that GhTT2 has obvious transcriptional activation characteristics. Furthermore, the content of proanthocyanidins in GhTT2-silenced cottons is significantly reduced, indicating that GhTT2 may be involved in regulation of the proanthocyanidins biosynthesis in Gossypium hirsutum. These results provide a reference for further elucidating the molecular mechanisms of MYB transcription factors involved in the regulation of the biosynthetic pathway of PAs.

RUNX Family in Hypoxic Microenvironment and Angiogenesis in Cancers.

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is broadly implicated in tumorigenesis, as tumor cells interact with surrounding cells to influence the development and progression of the tumor. Blood vessels are a major component of the TME and are attributed to the creation of a hypoxic microenvironment, which is a common feature of advanced cancers and inflamed premalignant tissues. Runt-related transcription factor (RUNX) proteins, a transcription factor family of developmental master regulators, are involved in vital cellular processes such as differentiation, proliferation, cell lineage specification, and apoptosis. Furthermore, the RUNX family is involved in the regulation of various oncogenic processes and signaling pathways as well as tumor suppressive functions, suggesting that the RUNX family plays a strategic role in tumorigenesis. In this review, we have discussed the relevant findings that describe the crosstalk of the RUNX family with the hypoxic TME and tumor angiogenesis or with their signaling molecules in cancer development and progression.

NIN-like protein 7 transcription factor is a plant nitrate sensor.

Nitrate is an essential nutrient and signaling molecule for plant growth. Plants sense intracellular nitrate to adjust their metabolic and growth responses. Here we identify the primary nitrate sensor in plants. We found that mutation of all seven Arabidopsis NIN-like protein (NLP) transcription factors abolished plants' primary nitrate responses and developmental programs. Analyses of NIN-NLP7 chimeras and nitrate binding revealed that NLP7 is derepressed upon nitrate perception via its amino terminus. A genetically encoded fluorescent split biosensor, mCitrine-NLP7, enabled visualization of single-cell nitrate dynamics in planta. The nitrate sensor domain of NLP7 resembles the bacterial nitrate sensor NreA. Substitutions of conserved residues in the ligand-binding pocket impaired the ability of nitrate-triggered NLP7 to control transcription, transport, metabolism, development, and biomass. We propose that NLP7 represents a nitrate sensor in land plants.

ISL1 is necessary for auditory neuron development and contributes toward tonotopic organization.

A cardinal feature of the auditory pathway is frequency selectivity, represented in a tonotopic map from the cochlea to the cortex. The molecular determinants of the auditory frequency map are unknown. Here, we discovered that the transcription factor ISL1 regulates the molecular and cellular features of auditory neurons, including the formation of the spiral ganglion and peripheral and central processes that shape the tonotopic representation of the auditory map. We selectively knocked out Isl1 in auditory neurons using Neurod1Cre strategies. In the absence of Isl1, spiral ganglion neurons migrate into the central cochlea and beyond, and the cochlear wiring is profoundly reduced and disrupted. The central axons of Isl1 mutants lose their topographic projections and segregation at the cochlear nucleus. Transcriptome analysis of spiral ganglion neurons shows that Isl1 regulates neurogenesis, axonogenesis, migration, neurotransmission-related machinery, and synaptic communication patterns. We show that peripheral disorganization in the cochlea affects the physiological properties of hearing in the midbrain and auditory behavior. Surprisingly, auditory processing features are preserved despite the significant hearing impairment, revealing central auditory pathway resilience and plasticity in Isl1 mutant mice. Mutant mice have a reduced acoustic startle reflex, altered prepulse inhibition, and characteristics of compensatory neural hyperactivity centrally. Our findings show that ISL1 is one of the obligatory factors required to sculpt auditory structural and functional tonotopic maps. Still, upon Isl1 deletion, the ensuing central plasticity of the auditory pathway does not suffice to overcome developmentally induced peripheral dysfunction of the cochlea.

Caenorhabditis elegans sine oculis/SIX-type homeobox genes act as homeotic switches to define neuronal subtype identities.

The classification of neurons into distinct types reveals hierarchical taxonomic relationships that reflect the extent of similarity between neuronal cell types. At the base of such taxonomies are neuronal cells that are very similar to one another but differ in a small number of reproducible and select features. How are very similar members of a neuron class that share many features instructed to diversify into distinct subclasses? We show here that the six very similar members of the Caenorhabditis elegans IL2 sensory neuron class, which are all specified by a homeobox terminal selector, unc-86/BRN3, differentiate into two subtly distinct subclasses, a dorsoventral subclass and a lateral subclass, by the toggle switch-like action of the sine oculis/SIX homeobox gene unc-39. unc-39 is expressed only in the lateral IL2 neurons, and loss of unc-39 leads to a homeotic transformation of the lateral into the dorsoventral class; conversely, ectopic unc-39 expression converts the dorsoventral subclass into the lateral subclass. Hence, a terminal selector homeobox gene controls both class- as well as subclass-specific features, while a subordinate homeobox gene determines the ability of the class-specific homeobox gene to activate subtype-specific target genes. We find a similar regulatory mechanism operating in a distinct class of six motor neurons. Our findings underscore the importance of homeobox genes in neuronal identity control and invite speculations about homeotic identity transformations as potential drivers of evolutionary novelty during cell-type evolution in the brain.

Physiological Convergence and Antagonism Between GR and PPARγ in Inflammation and Metabolism.

Nuclear receptors (NRs) are transcription factors that modulate gene expression in a ligand-dependent manner. The ubiquitously expressed glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) represent steroid (type I) and non-steroid (type II) classes of NRs, respectively. The diverse transcriptional and physiological outcomes of their activation are highly tissue-specific. For example, in subsets of immune cells, such as macrophages, the signaling of GR and PPARγ converges to elicit an anti-inflammatory phenotype; in contrast, in the adipose tissue, their signaling can lead to reciprocal metabolic outcomes. This review explores the cooperative and divergent outcomes of GR and PPARγ functions in different cell types and tissues, including immune cells, adipose tissue and the liver. Understanding the coordinated control of these NR pathways should advance studies in the field and potentially pave the way for developing new therapeutic approaches to exploit the GR:PPARγ crosstalk.

Overexpression of PgCBF3 and PgCBF7 Transcription Factors from Pomegranate Enhances Freezing Tolerance in Arabidopsis under the Promoter Activity Positively Regulated by PgICE1.

Cold stress limits plant growth, development and yields, and the C-repeat binding factors (CBFs) function in the cold resistance in plants. However, how pomegranate CBF transcription factors respond to cold signal remains unclear. Considering the significantly up-regulated expression of PgCBF3 and PgCBF7 in cold-tolerant Punica granatum 'Yudazi' in comparison with cold-sensitive 'Tunisia' under 4 °C, the present study focused on the two CBF genes. PgCBF3 was localized in the nucleus, while PgCBF7 was localized in the cell membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus, both owning transcriptional activation activity in yeast. Yeast one-hybrid and dual-luciferase reporter assay further confirmed that PgICE1 could specifically bind to and significantly enhance the activation activity of the promoters of PgCBF3 and PgCBF7. Compared with the wild-type plants, the PgCBF3 and PgCBF7 transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana lines had the higher survival rate after cold treatment; exhibited increased the contents of soluble sugar and proline, while lower electrolyte leakage, malondialdehyde content, and reactive oxygen species production, accompanying with elevated enzyme activity of catalase, peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase; and upregulated the expression of AtCOR15A, AtCOR47, AtRD29A, and AtKIN1. Collectively, PgCBFs were positively regulated by the upstream PgICE1 and mediated the downstream COR genes expression, thereby enhancing freezing tolerance.

PD-1 cooperates with AIRE-mediated tolerance to prevent lethal autoimmune disease.

Immunological tolerance is established and maintained by a diverse array of safeguards that work together to protect against autoimmunity. Despite the identification of numerous tolerogenic processes, the basis for cooperation among them remains poorly understood. We sought to identify synergy among several well-defined tolerance mediators that alone provide protection only from mild autoimmune symptoms in C57BL/6 mice: BIM, AIRE, CBL-B, and PD-1. Survey of a range of compound mutant mice revealed that the combined loss of the autoimmune regulator, AIRE, with PD-1 unleashed a spontaneous, lethal autoimmune disease. Pdcd1−/−Aire−/− mice succumbed to cachexia before adulthood, with near-complete destruction of the exocrine pancreas. Such fatal autoimmunity was not observed in Pdcd1−/−Bim−/−, Bim−/−Aire−/−, or Cblb−/−Bim−/− mice, suggesting that the cooperation between AIRE-mediated and PD-1­mediated tolerance was particularly potent. Immune profiling revealed largely normal development of FOXP3+ regulatory T (Treg) cells in Pdcd1−/−Aire−/− mice, yet excessive, early activation of effector T cells. Adoptive transfer experiments demonstrated that autoimmune exocrine pancreatitis was driven by conventional CD4+ T cells and could not be prevented by the cotransfer of Treg cells from wild-type mice. The development of autoimmunity in mixed bone marrow chimeras supported these observations, indicating that failure of recessive tolerance was responsible for disease. These findings reveal a potent tolerogenic axis between AIRE and PD-1 that has implications for our understanding of how immune checkpoint blockade might synergize with subclinical defects in central tolerance to elicit autoimmune disease.

Subcellular Distribution of Thyroid Hormone Receptor Beta in Ovarian Cancer.

Background: Since the most well-known function of thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) relies on their ability to act as ligand-activated transcription factors, their subcellular localization has been recognized to be relevant for their biological meaning. The current study aimed to determine the prevalence and subcellular distribution of TR beta and TR beta-1 in ovarian cancer (OC). Methods: Tissue was collected from 153 patients that had undergone surgery due to OC at the Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology of the Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich. Immunohistochemistry detecting TR beta and TR beta-1 was performed. Staining signals were quantified and tested for association with clinico-pathological parameters including overall survival (OS). Results: The subcellular distribution of TR beta and TR beta-1 differed among histologic subtypes, grade and FIGO stage. TR beta positivity was strongly linked to shortened overall survival (p < 0.001). Strikingly, this shortened OS was mainly attributed to those cases showing complete (p = 0.005) or incomplete shift of TR beta to the cytoplasm (p < 0.001). Significance was lost in multivariate testing. Conclusions: Cytoplasmatic localization of TR beta was associated with reduced OS, at least in univariate analysis. Since TRs have long been supposed to mainly function via the regulation of gene transcription in the nucleus, cytoplasmatic shifting might be interpreted as a regulator of their activity.

Temporal scaling in C. elegans larval development.

SignificanceAn enduring mystery of development is how its timing is controlled, particularly for development after birth, where timing is highly flexible and depends on environmental conditions, such as food availability and diet. We followed timing of cell- and organism-level events in individual Caenorhabditis elegans larvae developing from hatching to adulthood, uncovering widespread variations in event timing, both between isogenic individuals in the same environment and when changing conditions and genotypes. However, in almost all cases, we found that events occurred at the same time, when time was rescaled by the duration of development measured in each individual. This observation of "temporal scaling" poses strong constraints on models to explain timing of larval development.

Thrap3 promotes osteogenesis by inhibiting the degradation of Runx2.

The dysfunction of osteogenesis is a key character in the pathogenesis of osteoporosis, but the network of signaling mechanisms in controlling the differentiation of osteoblast remain unclear. Thrap3 has been proved participating in various biological process, especially in the differentiation of stem cells. Here, we demonstrate that Thrap3 could promote osteogenesis through the inhibition of the degradation of Runx2, which is a key molecular structure in early osteoblast differentiation. Furthermore, we found that the osteogenesis enhancing capacity of Thrap3 was caused by physically binding with Sox9, inhibiting the transcriptional activity of Sox9, and then decreasing the decomposition-promoted effect of Sox9 on Runx2. Our data shows that Thrap3 promotes osteoblast differentiation through the Thrap3-Sox9-Runx2 axis. What we found may help for further clarifying the molecular mechanism of osteogenic differentiation and give a new potential therapeutic target for osteoporosis.

Disruption of YCP4 enhances freeze-thaw tolerance in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to identify genes related to freeze-thaw tolerance and elucidate the tolerance mechanism in yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae as an appropriate eukaryote model. RESULTS: In this study, one tolerant strain exposed to freeze-thaw stress was isolated by screening a transposon-mediated mutant library and the disrupted gene was identified to be YCP4. In addition, this phenotype related to freeze-thaw tolerance was confirmed by deletion and overexpressing of this corresponding gene. This mutant strain showed a freeze-thaw tolerance by reducing the intracellular level of reactive oxygen species and the activation of the MSN2/4 and STRE-mediated genes such as CTT1 and HSP12. CONCLUSIONS: Disruption of YCP4 in S. cerevisiae results in increased tolerance to freeze-thaw stress.

BMP7 increases protein synthesis in SW1353 cells and determines rRNA levels in a NKX3-2-dependent manner.

BMP7 is a morphogen capable of counteracting the OA chondrocyte hypertrophic phenotype via NKX3-2. NKX3-2 represses expression of RUNX2, an important transcription factor for chondrocyte hypertrophy. Since RUNX2 has previously been described as an inhibitor for 47S pre-rRNA transcription, we hypothesized that BMP7 positively influences 47S pre-rRNA transcription through NKX3-2, resulting in increased protein translational capacity. Therefor SW1353 cells and human primary chondrocytes were exposed to BMP7 and rRNA (18S, 5.8S, 28S) expression was determined by RT-qPCR. NKX3-2 knockdown was achieved via transfection of a NKX3-2-specific siRNA duplex. Translational capacity was assessed by the SUNsET assay, and 47S pre-rRNA transcription was determined by transfection of a 47S gene promoter-reporter plasmid. BMP7 treatment increased protein translational capacity. This was associated by increased 18S and 5.8S rRNA and NKX3-2 mRNA expression, as well as increased 47S gene promotor activity. Knockdown of NKX3-2 led to increased expression of RUNX2, accompanied by decreased 47S gene promotor activity and rRNA expression, an effect BMP7 was unable to restore. Our data demonstrate that BMP7 positively influences protein translation capacity of SW1353 cells and chondrocytes. This is likely caused by an NKX3-2-dependent activation of 47S gene promotor activity. This finding connects morphogen-mediated changes in cellular differentiation to an aspect of ribosome biogenesis via key transcription factors central to determining the chondrocyte phenotype.

Single-cell transcriptomic analysis of human colonic macrophages reveals niche-specific subsets.

Macrophages are a heterogeneous population of cells involved in tissue homeostasis, inflammation, and cancer. Although macrophages are densely distributed throughout the human intestine, our understanding of how gut macrophages maintain tissue homeostasis is limited. Here we show that colonic lamina propria macrophages (LpMs) and muscularis macrophages (MMs) consist of monocyte-like cells that differentiate into multiple transcriptionally distinct subsets. LpMs comprise subsets with proinflammatory properties and subsets with high antigen-presenting and phagocytic capacity. The latter are strategically positioned close to the surface epithelium. Most MMs differentiate along two trajectories: one that upregulates genes associated with immune activation and angiogenesis, and one that upregulates genes associated with neuronal homeostasis. Importantly, MMs are located adjacent to neurons and vessels. Cell-cell interaction and gene network analysis indicated that survival, migration, transcriptional reprogramming, and niche-specific localization of LpMs and MMs are controlled by an extensive interaction with tissue-resident cells and a few key transcription factors.

Role of the Pbrm1 subunit and the PBAF complex in Schwann cell development.

Myelin sheath formation in the peripheral nervous system and the ensuing saltatory conduction rely on differentiated Schwann cells. We have previously shown that transition of Schwann cells from an immature into a differentiated state requires Brg1 that serves as the central energy generating subunit in two related SWI/SNF-type chromatin remodelers, the BAF and the PBAF complex. Here we used conditional deletion of Pbrm1 to selectively interfere with the PBAF complex in Schwann cells. Despite efficient loss of Pbrm1 early during lineage progression, we failed to detect any substantial alterations in the number, proliferation or survival of immature Schwann cells as well as in their rate and timing of terminal differentiation. As a consequence, postnatal myelin formation in peripheral nerves appeared normal. There were no inflammatory alterations in the nerve or other signs of a peripheral neuropathy. We conclude from our study that Pbrm1 and very likely the PBAF complex are dispensable for proper Schwann cell development and that Schwann cell defects previously observed upon Brg1 deletion are mostly attributable to altered or absent function of the BAF complex.

The ECSIT Mediated Toll3-Dorsal-ALFs Pathway Inhibits Bacterial Amplification in Kuruma Shrimp.

The Toll signaling pathway plays an important role in animal innate immunity. However, its activation and signal transmission greatly differ across species and need to be investigated. Shrimp farming is a worldwide economic activity affected by bacterial disease from the 1990s, which promoted research on shrimp immunity. In this study, we first proved that, among the three identified Toll receptors in Marsupenaeus japonicus kuruma shrimp, Toll 3 plays a pivotal role in initiating the antibacterial response in vivo, especially upon anti-Staphylococcus aureus infection. Further research showed that this result was due to the activation of the Dorsal transcription factor, which induced the expression of two anti-lipopolysaccharide factors (Alfs). Moreover, the evolutionarily conserved signaling intermediate in Toll pathways, ECSIT, was proved to be needed for signal transmission from Toll 3 to Dorsal and the expression of anti-lipopolysaccharide factors. Finally, the mortality assay showed that a Toll3-ECSIT-Dorsal-Alf axis was functional in the anti-S.aureus immunity of M. japonicus shrimp. The results provide new insights into the function and signal transduction of the Toll pathway in aquatic species and offer basic knowledge for shrimp disease control and genetic breeding.